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Ap Biology Pearson Active Reading Guide Answers Chapter 13

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Biology in Focus - Chapter 13

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Biology in Focus - Affiliate xiii - Molecular Basis of Inheritance

Biological science in Focus - Chapter 13 - Molecular Basis of Inheritance

  1. 1. CAMPBELL BIOLOGY IN FOCUS © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson • Reece Lecture Presentations by Kathleen Fitzpatrick and Nicole Tunbridge 13 The Molecular Basis of Inheritance
  2. 2. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc. Overview: Life'southward Operating Instructions  In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick introduced an elegant double-helical model for the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid, or Deoxyribonucleic acid  Deoxyribonucleic acid, the substance of inheritance, is the most celebrated molecule of our time  Hereditary information is encoded in Deoxyribonucleic acid and reproduced in all cells of the body (DNA replication)
  3. three. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.1
  4. 4. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc. Concept 13.ane: Dna is the genetic material  Early in the 20th century, the identification of the molecules of inheritance loomed as a major challenge to biologists
  5. five. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. The Search for the Genetic Textile: Scientific Inquiry  When T. H. Morgan's group showed that genes are located on chromosomes, the two components of chromosomes—Dna and protein—became candidates for the genetic fabric  The cardinal factor in determining the genetic material was choosing appropriate experimental organisms  The role of Dna in heredity was first discovered by studying bacteria and the viruses that infect them
  6. 6. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc. Evidence That DNA Can Transform Bacteria  The discovery of the genetic role of Deoxyribonucleic acid began with research past Frederick Griffith in 1928  Griffith worked with ii strains of a bacterium, one pathogenic and one harmless
  7. vii. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc.  When he mixed estrus-killed remains of the pathogenic strain with living cells of the harmless strain, some living cells became pathogenic  He chosen this phenomenon transformation, now divers equally a alter in genotype and phenotype due to assimilation of foreign DNA
  8. 8. © 2014 Pearson Educational activity, Inc. Figure 13.2 Living S cells (control) Mouse good for you Results Experiment Mouse healthy Mouse dies Living S cells Living R cells (control) Heat-killed S cells (control) Mixture of estrus-killed S cells and living R cells Mouse dies
  9. 9. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  Later work past Oswald Avery and others identified the transforming substance as Deoxyribonucleic acid  Many biologists remained skeptical, mainly considering niggling was known about DNA and they thought proteins were meliorate candidates for the genetic cloth
  10. 10. © 2014 Pearson Didactics, Inc. Evidence That Viral DNA Can Program Cells  More than evidence for DNA as the genetic material came from studies of viruses that infect bacteria  Such viruses, chosen bacteriophages (or phages), are widely used in molecular genetics research  A virus is DNA (or RNA) enclosed by a protective poly peptide coat  Viruses must infect cells and take over the cells' metabolic machinery in order to reproduce Animation: Phage T2 Reproduction
  11. 11. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc. Figure 13.3 Phage head Tail sheath Tail fiber DNA Bacterial jail cell 100nm
  12. 12. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc.  In 1952, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase showed that DNA is the genetic material of a phage known as T2  To determine this, they designed an experiment showing that only the Dna of the T2 phage, and not the poly peptide, enters an East. coli jail cell during infection  They concluded that the injected DNA of the phage provides the genetic data Blitheness: Hershey-Chase Experiment
  13. 13. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc. Figure xiii.4 Labeled phages infect cells. Batch ane: Radioactive sulfur (35 S) in phage protein Experiment Agitation frees outside phage parts from cells. Centrifuged cells form a pellet. Radioactivity (phage protein) found in liquid Batch 2: Radioactive phosphorus (32 P) in phage DNA Radioactivity (phage DNA) found in pellet Radioactive protein Radioactive Dna Centrifuge Centrifuge Pellet Pellet 1 ii iii iv 4
  14. fourteen. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure xiii.4a Labeled phages infect cells. Batch 1: Radioactive sulfur (35 S) in phage protein Experiment Agitation frees exterior phage parts from cells. Centrifuged cells form a pellet. Radioactive decay (phage protein) found in liquid Radioactive protein Centrifuge Pellet 1 2 3 4
  15. 15. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc. Figure 13.4b Batch 2: Radioactive phosphorus (32 P) in phage Deoxyribonucleic acid Radioactivity (phage Dna) constitute in pellet Radioactive Deoxyribonucleic acid Centrifuge Pellet Labeled phages infect cells. Agitation frees outside phage parts from cells. Centrifuged cells class a pellet. 1 2 3 four Experiment
  16. 16. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Additional Evidence That DNA Is the Genetic Material  It was known that Deoxyribonucleic acid is a polymer of nucleotides, each consisting of a nitrogenous base, a sugar, and a phosphate group  In 1950, Erwin Chargaff reported that DNA composition varies from i species to the next  This evidence of diverseness fabricated DNA a more credible candidate for the genetic material Animation: DNA and RNA Structure
  17. 17. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc. Effigy 13.5 Sugar– phosphate backbone Dna nucleotide Nitrogenous bases iii′ end 5′ end Thymine (T) Adenine (A) Cytosine (C) Guanine (G)
  18. 18. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc. Figure 13.5a Phosphate Deoxyribonucleic acid nucleotide Nitrogenous base of operations 3′ finish Saccharide (deoxyribose)
  19. 19. © 2014 Pearson Educational activity, Inc.  Two findings became known as Chargaff's rules  The base of operations composition of Dna varies between species  In whatsoever species the number of A and T bases is equal and the number of G and C bases is equal  The ground for these rules was not understood until the discovery of the double helix
  20. xx. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Edifice a Structural Model of DNA: Scientific Research  James Watson and Francis Crick were start to determine the structure of DNA  Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin were using a technique called 10-ray crystallography to study molecular construction  Franklin produced a moving-picture show of the DNA molecule using this technique
  21. 21. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.6 (b) Franklin's 10-ray diffraction photograph of DNA (a) Rosalind Franklin
  22. 22. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure thirteen.6a (a) Rosalind Franklin
  23. 23. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy 13.6b (b) Franklin's X-ray diffraction photograph of Dna
  24. 24. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc.  Franklin's X-ray crystallographic images of DNA enabled Watson to deduce that Deoxyribonucleic acid was helical  The X-ray images also enabled Watson to deduce the width of the helix and the spacing of the nitrogenous bases  The pattern in the photo suggested that the Deoxyribonucleic acid molecule was made up of 2 strands, forming a double helix Animation: Dna Double Helix Video: DNA Surface Model
  25. 25. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure xiii.vii (c) Space-filling model (a) Central features of Deoxyribonucleic acid structure (b) Partial chemical structure 3′ end 5′ stop 3′ end 5′ end Hydrogen bail T A C Thou CG three.four nm TA TA C G C K T A 1 nm 0.34 nm T A T A C G C G C Thou C G T A T A CG C GC M
  26. 26. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.7a (a) Key features of Deoxyribonucleic acid structure iii.4 nm TA C G C G T A 1 nm 0.34 nm T A T A C G C Chiliad C G C Chiliad T A T A CG C GC G
  27. 27. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc. Figure 13.7b (b) Partial chemical structure three′ end v′ terminate three′ end 5′ end Hydrogen bond T A C Thou CG TA
  28. 28. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy 13.7c (c) Infinite-filling model
  29. 29. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  Watson and Crick congenital models of a double helix to adapt to the X-ray measurements and the chemical science of Dna  Franklin had concluded that there were two outer carbohydrate-phosphate backbones, with the nitrogenous bases paired in the molecule's interior  Watson built a model in which the backbones were antiparallel (their subunits run in opposite directions)
  30. 30. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc.  At get-go, Watson and Crick thought the bases paired similar with similar (A with A, and and so on), merely such pairings did not result in a uniform width  Instead, pairing a purine with a pyrimidine resulted in a uniform width consistent with the X-ray data
  31. 31. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc. Effigy 13.UN02 Purine + purine: too broad Pyrimidine + pyrimidine: besides narrow Purine + pyrimidine: width consistent with X-ray information
  32. 32. © 2014 Pearson Didactics, Inc.  Watson and Crick reasoned that the pairing was more specific, dictated by the base structures  They determined that adenine (A) paired merely with thymine (T), and guanine (Yard) paired only with cytosine (C)  The Watson-Crick model explains Chargaff'south rules: in whatever organism the corporeality of A = T, and the amount of G = C
  33. 33. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc. Figure thirteen.8 Carbohydrate Saccharide Sugar Sugar Thymine (T)Adenine (A) Cytosine (C)Guanine (One thousand)
  34. 34. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Concept 13.2: Many proteins piece of work together in DNA replication and repair  The relationship between construction and function is manifest in the double helix  Watson and Crick noted that the specific base pairing suggested a possible copying mechanism for genetic textile
  35. 35. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc. Figure thirteen.9-1 (a) Parental molecule T A C G CG TA TA
  36. 36. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.9-2 (a) Parental molecule (b) Separation of parental strands into templates T A C Thousand CG TA TATA T A C Chiliad CG TA
  37. 37. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure xiii.9-3 (a) Parental molecule (b) Separation of parental strands into templates (c) Formation of new strands complementary to template strands T A C Chiliad CG TA TATA T A C One thousand CG TA T A C Thousand CG TA TA T A C Yard CG TA TA
  38. 38. © 2014 Pearson Educational activity, Inc. The Basic Principle: Base Pairing to a Template Strand  Since the two strands of DNA are complementary, each strand acts every bit a template for building a new strand in replication  In DNA replication, the parent molecule unwinds, and two new girl strands are built based on base-pairing rules
  39. 39. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc.  Watson and Crick'due south semiconservative model of replication predicts that when a double helix replicates, each daughter molecule will take i old strand (derived or "conserved" from the parent molecule) and one newly fabricated strand  Competing models were the conservative model (the 2 parent strands rejoin) and the dispersive model (each strand is a mix of erstwhile and new)
  40. 40. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc. Figure xiii.10 (a) Bourgeois model (b) Semiconservative model (c) Dispersive model Parent cell Outset replication 2d replication
  41. 41. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  Experiments by Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl supported the semiconservative model
  42. 42. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure thirteen.11 Conservative model Semiconservative model Dispersive model Predictions: Outset replication 2d replication DNA sample centrifuged after first replication Deoxyribonucleic acid sample centrifuged afterward second replication Leaner cultured in medium with 15 N (heavy isotope) Bacteria transferred to medium with 14 North (lighter isotope) Less dense More dumbo Experiment Results Conclusion ane 3 2 four
  43. 43. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure thirteen.11a DNA sample centrifuged after get-go replication DNA sample centrifuged after second replication Leaner cultured in medium with 15 Due north (heavy isotope) Leaner transferred to medium with 14 N (lighter isotope) Less dense More dense Experiment Results 1 3 4 2
  44. 44. © 2014 Pearson Educational activity, Inc. Effigy xiii.11b Conservative model Semiconservative model Dispersive model Predictions: First replication Second replication Conclusion
  45. 45. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc. Deoxyribonucleic acid Replication: A Closer Look  The copying of Deoxyribonucleic acid is remarkable in its speed and accuracy  More than a dozen enzymes and other proteins participate in DNA replication  Much more is known about how this "replication machine" works in bacteria than in eukaryotes  Well-nigh of the procedure is like between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
  46. 46. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Getting Started  Replication begins at particular sites chosen origins of replication, where the two DNA strands are separated, opening up a replication "bubble"  At each end of a bubble is a replication fork, a Y-shaped region where the parental strands of DNA are being unwound Blitheness: Deoxyribonucleic acid Replication Overview Blitheness: Origins of Replication
  47. 47. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.12 Single-strand binding proteins Helicase Topoisomerase Primase Replication fork five′ v′ 5′ 3′ 3′ three′ RNA primer
  48. 48. © 2014 Pearson Educational activity, Inc.  Helicases are enzymes that untwist the double helix at the replication forks  Single-strand binding proteins bind to and stabilize single-stranded Deoxyribonucleic acid  Topoisomerase relieves the strain acquired past tight twisting alee of the replication fork by breaking, swiveling, and rejoining Deoxyribonucleic acid strands
  49. 49. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure xiii.13 Double- stranded DNA molecule Ii daughter DNA molecules Replication chimera Replication fork Daughter (new) strand Parental (template) strandOrigin of replication Double-stranded DNA molecule 2 daughter Dna molecules Chimera Replication fork Daughter (new) strand Parental (template) strand Origin of replication (a) Origin of replication in an East. coli cell (b) Origins of replication in a eukaryotic prison cell 0.25µm 0.5µm
  50. l. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy xiii.13a Double- stranded DNA molecule Ii daughter Deoxyribonucleic acid molecules Replication bubble Replication fork Daughter (new) strand Parental (template) strandOrigin of replication (a) Origin of replication in an E. coli cell 0.5µm
  51. 51. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.13aa 0.5µm
  52. 52. © 2014 Pearson Didactics, Inc.  Multiple replication bubbles form and eventually fuse, speeding up the copying of DNA
  53. 53. © 2014 Pearson Educational activity, Inc. Figure 13.13b Double-stranded DNA molecule Two daughter DNA molecules Bubble Replication fork Girl (new) strand Parental (template) strand Origin of replication (b) Origins of replication in a eukaryotic cell 0.25µm
  54. 54. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy 13.13ba 0.25µm
  55. 55. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  Deoxyribonucleic acid polymerases cannot initiate synthesis of a polynucleotide; they can only add nucleotides to an already existing chain base of operations-paired with the template  The initial nucleotide strand is a short RNA primer Synthesizing a New DNA Strand
  56. 56. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  The enzyme, primase, starts an RNA chain from a unmarried RNA nucleotide and adds RNA nucleotides one at a time using the parental Deoxyribonucleic acid equally a template  The primer is short (5–10 nucleotides long)  The new DNA strand will start from the iii′ end of the RNA primer
  57. 57. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc.  Enzymes called DNA polymerases catalyze the elongation of new Deoxyribonucleic acid at a replication fork  About DNA polymerases require a primer and a DNA template strand  The charge per unit of elongation is about 500 nucleotides per 2nd in bacteria and 50 per 2d in human cells
  58. 58. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  Each nucleotide that is added to a growing DNA consists of a carbohydrate attached to a base and three phosphate groups  dATP is used to make Dna and is like to the ATP of energy metabolism  The difference is in the sugars: dATP has deoxyribose, while ATP has ribose  As each monomer nucleotide joins the Dna strand, it loses 2 phosphate groups as a molecule of pyrophosphate
  59. 59. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc. Figure 13.14 Pyro- phosphate New strand Phosphate Nucleotide 5′ iii′ Template strand Sugar Base five′ iii′ 5′ 3′ 5′ iii′ DNA poly- merase T A T C G A T CG CP P P P P iP i2 A T C Chiliad A CG C
  60. 60. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Antiparallel Elongation  The antiparallel structure of the double helix affects replication  Deoxyribonucleic acid polymerases add nucleotides simply to the free three′ end of a growing strand; therefore, a new DNA strand can elongate only in the 5′ to 3′ direction
  61. 61. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc.  Along 1 template strand of DNA, the Dna polymerase synthesizes a leading strand continuously, moving toward the replication fork Blitheness: Leading Strand
  62. 62. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy 13.fifteen Parental DNA v′ 3′ v′ 3′ v′ three′ Continuous elongation in the 5′ to 3′ direction 5′ three′ 5′ iii′ Dna political leader III RNA primer Sliding clamp 5′ three′ Origin of replication Origin of replication Lagging strand Lagging strand Overall directions of replication Leading strand Leading strand Overview Primer
  63. 63. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure xiii.15a Origin of replication Lagging strand Lagging strand Overall directions of replication Leading strand Leading strand Overview Primer
  64. 64. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.15b Parental Deoxyribonucleic acid 5′ 3′ v′ iii′ five′ three′ Continuous elongation in the 5′ to 3′ management 5′ 3′ 5′ 3′ DNA pol III RNA primer Sliding clamp 5′ 3′ Origin of replication
  65. 65. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc.  To elongate the other new strand, chosen the lagging strand, Deoxyribonucleic acid polymerase must work in the direction away from the replication fork  The lagging strand is synthesized as a series of segments called Okazaki fragments
  66. 66. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  Afterwards formation of Okazaki fragments, DNA polymerase I removes the RNA primers and replaces the nucleotides with DNA  The remaining gaps are joined together by DNA ligase Animation: Lagging Strand Blitheness: DNA Replication Review
  67. 67. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc. Effigy 13.16 5′ 3′ 5′ 3′ Origin of replicationLagging strand Lagging strand Overall directions of replication Leading strand Leading strand Overview Primase makes RNA primer. RNA primer for fragment one Template strand Okazaki fragment 1 DNA pol Iii makes Okazaki fragment one. DNA pol III detaches. 5′ 3′ 5′ iii′ 5′ 3′ 5′ 3′ RNA primer for fragment 2 Okazaki fragment 2 DNA political leader III makes Okazaki fragment two. Overall direction of replication Dna pol I replaces RNA with Deoxyribonucleic acid. Deoxyribonucleic acid ligase forms bonds betwixt Dna fragments. 5′ 3′ 5′ 3′ 5′ 3′ 5′ three′ 5′ iii′ 5′ 3′ 1 2 three 4 5 half dozen
  68. 68. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc. Figure 13.16a Origin of replicationLagging strand Lagging strand Overall directions of replication Leading strand Leading strand Overview
  69. 69. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.16b-1 5′ 3′ 5′ 3′ Primase makes RNA primer. Template strand 1
  70. 70. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.16b-two 5′ 3′ 5′ 3′ Primase makes RNA primer. RNA primer for fragment 1 Template strand Deoxyribonucleic acid pol III makes Okazaki fragment i. 5′ 3′ five′ 3′ 1 ii
  71. 71. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.16b-3 5′ iii′ v′ three′ Primase makes RNA primer. RNA primer for fragment 1 Template strand Okazaki fragment 1 Dna pol III makes Okazaki fragment ane. DNA pol Iii detaches. v′ 3′ 5′ 3′ 5′ three′ 5′ 3′ 1 ii three
  72. 72. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc. Figure xiii.16c-1 RNA primer for fragment 2 Okazaki fragment 2 DNA pol 3 makes Okazaki fragment ii. 5′ 3′ 5′ three′ four
  73. 73. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure xiii.16c-2 RNA primer for fragment 2 Okazaki fragment ii Dna politician Iii makes Okazaki fragment 2. DNA pol I replaces RNA with Dna. 5′ 3′ 5′ 3′ 5′ 3′ 5′ three′ iv 5
  74. 74. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.16c-three RNA primer for fragment ii Okazaki fragment two Dna pol III makes Okazaki fragment ii. Overall management of replication DNA pol I replaces RNA with DNA. Dna ligase forms bonds between DNA fragments. 5′ iii′ v′ three′ 5′ 3′ 5′ three′ 5′ 3′ v′ 3′ 4 6 5
  75. 75. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.17 3′ 5′ Origin of replication Lagging strand Lagging strand Overall directions of replication Leading strand Leading strand Overview five′ iii′ 5′ 3′ Leading strand Lagging strand DNA ligaseDNA politico I Deoxyribonucleic acid political leader 3 Primase Dna politician III Primer five′ 3′ 5′ three′ Lagging strand template Parental DNA Helicase Single-strand binding proteins Leading strand template
  76. 76. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy thirteen.17a Origin of replication Lagging strand Lagging strand Overall directions of replication Leading strand Leading strand Overview
  77. 77. © 2014 Pearson Didactics, Inc. Figure thirteen.17b 3′ 5′ three′ Leading strand DNA politician III Primase Primer 5′ 3′ Lagging strand template Parental Dna Helicase Unmarried-strand binding proteins Leading strand template
  78. 78. © 2014 Pearson Educational activity, Inc. Effigy 13.17c 5′ v′ iii′ 5′ 3′ Lagging strand Deoxyribonucleic acid ligaseDNA pol I DNA political leader 3
  79. 79. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc. The Deoxyribonucleic acid Replication Complex  The proteins that participate in DNA replication course a large complex, a "DNA replication motorcar"  The DNA replication car may be stationary during the replication process  Contempo studies back up a model in which Dna polymerase molecules "reel in" parental Dna and "extrude" newly made daughter DNA molecules Blitheness: DNA Replication
  80. eighty. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc. Figure 13.18 3′ 5′ v′ 3′ 5′ iii′ Lagging strand Deoxyribonucleic acid politico III Leading strand Lagging strand template Parental DNA HelicaseConnecting proteins Dna politico III three′5′ 3′ v′ 3′5′
  81. 81. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Proofreading and Repairing DNA  DNA polymerases proofread newly made Dna, replacing any incorrect nucleotides  In mismatch repair of DNA, other enzymes correct errors in base pairing  A hereditary defect in one such enzyme is associated with a form of colon cancer  This defect allows cancer-causing errors to accumulate in DNA faster than normal
  82. 82. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  Dna can be damaged by exposure to harmful chemical or concrete agents such as cigarette smoke and Ten-rays; it can too undergo spontaneous changes  In nucleotide excision repair, a nuclease cuts out and replaces damaged stretches of Dna
  83. 83. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.nineteen-1 3′ 5′ Nuclease 3′ v′ iii′ five′ three′ 5′
  84. 84. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy thirteen.19-ii 3′ 5′ Nuclease iii′ 5′ 3′ 5′ DNA polymerase 3′ 5′ 3′ v′ 3′ 5′
  85. 85. © 2014 Pearson Didactics, Inc. Figure xiii.19-three 3′ 5′ Nuclease 3′ 5′ iii′ 5′ DNA polymerase three′ five′ 3′ v′ 3′ 5′ DNA ligase 3′ five′ 3′ five′
  86. 86. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc. Evolutionary Significance of Contradistinct DNA Nucleotides  Error rate after proofreading repair is low but not null  Sequence changes may become permanent and tin be passed on to the next generation  These changes (mutations) are the source of the genetic variation upon which natural selection operates
  87. 87. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Replicating the Ends of Dna Molecules  Limitations of Dna polymerase create problems for the linear Dna of eukaryotic chromosomes  The usual replication mechanism cannot consummate the 5′ ends of daughter strands  Repeated rounds of replication produce shorter DNA molecules with uneven ends Animation: Deoxyribonucleic acid Packing Video: Nucleosome Model
  88. 88. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.20 i µm
  89. 89. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc.  Eukaryotic chromosomal Dna molecules have special nucleotide sequences at their ends chosen telomeres  Telomeres practise not forestall the shortening of DNA molecules, but they practise postpone information technology  It has been proposed that the shortening of telomeres is connected to aging
  90. xc. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc.  If chromosomes of germ cells became shorter in every prison cell cycle, essential genes would eventually exist missing from the gametes they produce  An enzyme called telomerase catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in germ cells
  91. 91. © 2014 Pearson Didactics, Inc.  Telomerase is not active in near man somatic cells  However, it does evidence inappropriate activity in some cancer cells  Telomerase is currently under study as a target for cancer therapies
  92. 92. © 2014 Pearson Didactics, Inc. Concept xiii.3: A chromosome consists of a DNA molecule packed together with proteins  The bacterial chromosome is a double-stranded, circular Deoxyribonucleic acid molecule associated with a small amount of poly peptide  Eukaryotic chromosomes have linear DNA molecules associated with a big corporeality of protein  In a bacterium, the DNA is "supercoiled" and plant in a region of the prison cell called the nucleoid
  93. 93. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc.  Chromatin, a circuitous of DNA and protein, is constitute in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells  Chromosomes fit into the nucleus through an elaborate, multilevel organisation of packing  Chromatin undergoes striking changes in the caste of packing during the course of the cell cycle
  94. 94. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure thirteen.21 Histone tail Histones H1 DNA double helix (2 nm in diameter) Nucleosome (10 nm in bore) Loops 30-nm fiber 300-nm fiber Replicated chromosome (1,400 nm) Scaffold Chromatid (700 nm)
  95. 95. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy thirteen.21a Histone tail Histones H1 DNA double helix (2 nm in bore) Nucleosome (10 nm in diameter)
  96. 96. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy 13.21aa DNA double helix (2 nm in diameter)
  97. 97. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.21ab Nucleosome (10 nm in diameter)
  98. 98. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.21b Loops 30-nm fiber 300-nm cobweb Replicated chromosome (1,400 nm) Scaffold Chromatid (700 nm)
  99. 99. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc. Effigy 13.21ba 30-nm fiber
  100. 100. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure xiii.21bb Loops Scaffold
  101. 101. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure thirteen.21bc Chromatid (700 nm)
  102. 102. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  At interphase, nearly of the chromatin is compacted into a 30-nm fiber, which is folded further in some areas by looping  Even during interphase, centromeres and some other parts of chromosomes are highly condensed, similar to metaphase chromosomes  This condensed chromatin is called heterochromatin; the more than dispersed, less compacted chromatin is called euchromatin
  103. 103. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  Dumbo packing of the heterochromatin makes it largely inaccessible to the machinery responsible for transcribing genetic information  Chromosomes are dynamic in structure; a condensed region may be loosened or modified every bit needed for diverse jail cell processes  For case, histones tin can undergo chemical modifications that outcome in changes in chromatin organization
  104. 104. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc. Concept thirteen.iv: Understanding DNA structure and replication makes genetic engineering possible  Complementary base pairing of Dna is the ground for nucleic acid hybridization, the base pairing of one strand of a nucleic acrid to another, complementary sequence  Nucleic acrid hybridization forms the foundation of nigh every technique used in genetic applied science, the direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes
  105. 105. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc. DNA Cloning: Making Multiple Copies of a Gene or Other Deoxyribonucleic acid Segment  To work straight with specific genes, scientists prepare well-defined segments of Dna in identical copies, a procedure called Dna cloning  Most methods for cloning pieces of Deoxyribonucleic acid in the laboratory share full general features
  106. 106. © 2014 Pearson Didactics, Inc.  Many leaner contain plasmids, modest circular DNA molecules that replicate separately from the bacterial chromosome  To clone pieces of DNA, researchers first obtain a plasmid and insert Deoxyribonucleic acid from another source ("strange Dna") into it  The resulting plasmid is called recombinant DNA Animation: Restriction Enzymes
  107. 107. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy 13.22 Copies of cistron Recombinant bacterium Factor of involvement Gene used to modify leaner for cleaning upwards toxic waste matter PlasmidBacterial chromosome Gene for pest resistance inserted into plants Poly peptide dissolves claret clots in heart attack therapy Recombinant DNA (plasmid) Bacterium Gene inserted into plasmid Plasmid put into bacterial cell Jail cell containing cistron of involvement Deoxyribonucleic acid of chromosome ("foreign" Dna) Gene of involvement Protein expressed from gene of interest Human growth hormone treats stunted growth Protein harvested Host jail cell grown in culture to course a clone of cells containing the "cloned" cistron of interest Basic research and various applications 1 2 three 4
  108. 108. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.22a Recombinant bacterium Gene of interest PlasmidBacterial chromosome Recombinant Deoxyribonucleic acid (plasmid) Bacterium Gene inserted into plasmid Plasmid put into bacterial cell Cell containing factor of interest Dna of chromosome ("strange" DNA) Cistron of interest Protein expressed from gene of interest Host cell grown in civilisation to class a clone of cells containing the "cloned" factor of interest 1 two 3
  109. 109. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure xiii.22b Copies of gene Gene of involvement Gene used to change bacteria for cleaning up toxic waste product Gene for pest resistance inserted into plants Protein dissolves blood clots in heart attack therapy Protein expressed from factor of involvement Human growth hormone treats stunted growth Protein harvested Basic research and various applications 4
  110. 110. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  The production of multiple copies of a single cistron is called factor cloning  Factor cloning is useful to brand many copies of a cistron and to produce a protein product  The ability to dilate many copies of a cistron is crucial for applications involving a unmarried gene
  111. 111. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Using Restriction Enzymes to Make Recombinant DNA  Bacterial brake enzymes cut DNA molecules at specific Dna sequences chosen restriction sites  A brake enzyme normally makes many cuts, yielding restriction fragments
  112. 112. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc. Figure thirteen.23-1 Restriction enzyme cuts the sugar-phosphate backbones. 3′ 5′ Restriction site DNA 3′ 5′ Gluey finish 3′ 5′ 3′ 5′ 3′ 5′ 3′ 5′ G GC CA TT A A TT A M GC CA TT A A TT A 1
  113. 113. © 2014 Pearson Didactics, Inc. Figure 13.23-2 Brake enzyme cuts the sugar-phosphate backbones. 3′ 5′ DNA 3′ 5′ Deoxyribonucleic acid fragment added from another molecule cutting by same enzyme. Base pairing occurs. Viscous end One possible combination 3′ 5′ 3′ 5′ iii′ 5′ 3′ 5′ 3′ 5′ 3′ 5′ 3′5′ 3′ 5′3′ five′ 3′ 5′ 3′5′ 3′ 5′ Thousand CAA TT Yard GC CA TT A A TT A Grand GC CA TT A A TT A 1 2 5′ Restriction site Thou GC CA TT A A TT A Grand GC CA T A A TT AT
  114. 114. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc. Effigy thirteen.23-3 Restriction enzyme cuts the carbohydrate-phosphate backbones. iii′ 5′ DNA three′ 5′ Dna fragment added from another molecule cut by same enzyme. Base pairing occurs. DNA ligase seals the strands. Sticky stop One possible combination Recombinant DNA molecule 3′ 5′ 3′ 5′ 3′ v′ iii′ 5′ iii′ 5′ 3′ 5′ iii′v′ three′ 5′three′ 5′ iii′ 5′ 3′5′ 3′ v′ 3′ 5′ 3′ 5′ G CAA TT G GC CA TT A A TT A Thou GC CA TT A A TT A 1 two 3 Restriction site G GC CA TT A A TT A Grand GC CA TT A A TT A
  115. 115. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc.  To see the fragments produced by cut Dna molecules with restriction enzymes, researchers use gel electrophoresis  This technique separates a mixture of nucleic acid fragments based on length
  116. 116. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.24 Mixture of Dna mol- ecules of different sizes Cathode Restriction fragments Anode Wells Gel Power source (a) Negatively charged DNA molecules will move toward the positive electrode. (b) Shorter molecules are impeded less than longer ones, so they move faster through the gel.
  117. 117. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy 13.24a Mixture of DNA mol- ecules of different sizes Cathode Anode Wells Gel Power source (a) Negatively charged Deoxyribonucleic acid molecules volition move toward the positive electrode.
  118. 118. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy 13.24b Restriction fragments (b) Shorter molecules are impeded less than longer ones, then they movement faster through the gel.
  119. 119. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  The most useful brake enzymes cleave the Dna in a staggered style to produce viscid ends  Sticky ends can bond with complementary sticky ends of other fragments  Deoxyribonucleic acid ligase can shut the sugar-phosphate backbones of Dna strands
  120. 120. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  In cistron cloning, the original plasmid is called a cloning vector  A cloning vector is a Dna molecule that can carry foreign DNA into a host cell and replicate there
  121. 121. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc. Amplifying DNA in Vitro: The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Its Apply in Cloning  The polymerase chain reaction, PCR, tin produce many copies of a specific target segment of DNA  A three-pace cycle brings about a concatenation reaction that produces an exponentially growing population of identical Deoxyribonucleic acid molecules  The fundamental to PCR is an unusual, oestrus-stable DNA polymerase chosen Taq polymerase.
  122. 122. © 2014 Pearson Didactics, Inc. Figure 13.25 three′ 5′ Wheel one yields two molecules Genomic DNA Denaturation Target sequence iii′ v′ iii′ 5′ 3′ 5′ Primers New nucleotides Annealing Extension Cycle ii yields four molecules Cycle 3 yields viii molecules; ii molecules (in white boxes) match target sequence Technique 1 2 3
  123. 123. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy 13.25a 3′ 5′ Genomic DNA Target sequence 3′ 5′
  124. 124. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy xiii.25b-1 Bicycle 1 yields ii molecules Denaturation 3′ v′ 3′ v′ 1
  125. 125. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.25b-2 Bicycle i yields 2 molecules Denaturation 3′ 5′ 3′ 5′ Primers Annealing 1 two
  126. 126. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.25b-3 Wheel 1 yields ii molecules Denaturation 3′ v′ 3′ 5′ Primers New nucleotides Annealing Extension 1 two iii
  127. 127. © 2014 Pearson Educational activity, Inc. Figure 13.25c Cycle 2 yields 4 molecules Cycle 3 yields 8 molecules; 2 molecules (in white boxes) match target sequence Results After thirty more cycles, over ane billion (109 ) molecules match the target sequence.
  128. 128. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  PCR amplification solitary cannot substitute for gene cloning in cells  Instead, PCR is used to provide the specific DNA fragment to be cloned  PCR primers are synthesized to include a restriction site that matches the site in the cloning vector  The fragment and vector are cut and ligated together
  129. 129. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure thirteen.26 Cloning vector (bacterial plasmid) DNA fragment obtained by PCR (cutting by same brake enzyme used on cloning vector) Mix and ligate Recombinant DNA plasmid
  130. 130. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Dna Sequencing  Once a gene is cloned, complementary base pairing can be exploited to determine the gene'southward complete nucleotide sequence  This procedure is called DNA sequencing
  131. 131. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc.  "Side by side-generation" sequencing techniques, developed in the last x years, are rapid and inexpensive  They sequence by synthesizing the complementary strand of a single, immobilized template strand  A chemical trick enables electronic monitors to identify which nucleotide is beingness added at each pace.
  132. 132. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc. Effigy 13.UN01
  133. 133. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure thirteen.UN03 Sugar-phosphate courage Nitrogenous bases Hydrogen bond T A C 1000 C G T T TA A A C GC G
  134. 134. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc. Figure thirteen.UN04 iii′ 5′ Origin of replication 3′ 5′ Lagging strand synthesized in short Okazaki fragments, later joined by Dna ligase Dna politician I replaces the RNA primer with DNA nucleotides Primase synthesizes a brusk RNA primer DNA politician 3 synthesizes leading strand continuously DNA pol Three starts DNA synthesis at 3′ cease of primer continues in 5′ → 3′ direction 3′ v′ five′ Parental Dna Helicase
  135. 135. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.UN05 3′ 5′ Sticky terminate Yard GC CA TT A A TT A 3′ five′3′ 5′3′ 5′
  136. 136. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure xiii.UN06

  • Figure 13.i How was the structure of DNA determined?
  • Effigy xiii.2 Inquiry: Can a genetic trait exist transferred between different bacterial strains?
  • Figure 13.iii Viruses infecting a bacterial jail cell
  • Figure 13.four Inquiry: Is protein or DNA the genetic material of phage T2?
  • Figure 13.4a Inquiry: Is protein or DNA the genetic material of phage T2? (part 1: poly peptide)
  • Effigy thirteen.4b Inquiry: Is protein or DNA the genetic fabric of phage T2? (part ii: Deoxyribonucleic acid)
  • Figure 13.5 The structure of a Deoxyribonucleic acid strand
  • Figure 13.5a The structure of a DNA strand (part 1: nucleotide)
  • Figure 13.6 Rosalind Franklin and her X-ray diffraction photo of Deoxyribonucleic acid
  • Effigy thirteen.6a Rosalind Franklin and her X-ray diffraction photograph of Deoxyribonucleic acid (part i: Franklin)
  • Figure 13.6b Rosalind Franklin and her X-ray diffraction photograph of DNA (part two: photo)
  • Figure 13.7 The double helix
  • Figure 13.7a The double helix (part i: key features)
  • Figure 13.7b The double helix (part 2: chemical structure)
  • Figure 13.7c The double helix (part three: space-filling model)
  • Effigy 13.UN02 In-text effigy, purines and pyrimidines, p. 250
  • Figure xiii.8 Base pairing in Dna
  • Effigy 13.9-1 A model for DNA replication: the basic concept (step ane)
  • Effigy 13.nine-two A model for Deoxyribonucleic acid replication: the basic concept (step 2)
  • Figure thirteen.nine-3 A model for DNA replication: the basic concept (stride iii)
  • Figure 13.10 Three culling models of Dna replication
  • Figure 13.xi Research: Does DNA replication follow the conservative, semiconservative, or dispersive model?
  • Figure 13.11a Enquiry: Does DNA replication follow the conservative, semiconservative, or dispersive model? (role one: experiment and results)
  • Figure xiii.11b Inquiry: Does Deoxyribonucleic acid replication follow the bourgeois, semiconservative, or dispersive model? (function 2: conclusions)
  • Figure xiii.12 Some of the proteins involved in the initiation of DNA replication
  • Effigy 13.13 Origins of replication in E. coli and eukaryotes
  • Effigy 13.13a Origins of replication in E. coli and eukaryotes (part i: E. coli)
  • Figure thirteen.13aa Origins of replication in E. coli and eukaryotes (office 1a: Eastward. coli, TEM)
  • Effigy 13.13b Origins of replication in Eastward. coli and eukaryotes (function 2: eukaryotes)
  • Figure 13.13ba Origins of replication in E. coli and eukaryotes (function 2a: eukaryotes, TEM)
  • Effigy 13.14 Addition of a nucleotide to a DNA strand
  • Figure 13.xv Synthesis of the leading strand during DNA replication
  • Figure 13.15a Synthesis of the leading strand during DNA replication (part 1)
  • Figure 13.15b Synthesis of the leading strand during Deoxyribonucleic acid replication (part ii)
  • Effigy 13.sixteen Synthesis of the lagging strand
  • Figure thirteen.16a Synthesis of the lagging strand (part 1)
  • Effigy 13.16b-ane Synthesis of the lagging strand (role ii, step 1)
  • Figure 13.16b-2 Synthesis of the lagging strand (part ii, step two)
  • Figure 13.16b-3 Synthesis of the lagging strand (part 2, pace 3)
  • Figure 13.16c-1 Synthesis of the lagging strand (office iii, stride 1)
  • Figure xiii.16c-2 Synthesis of the lagging strand (part 3, step 2)
  • Figure 13.16c-3 Synthesis of the lagging strand (function 3, footstep iii)
  • Figure 13.17 A summary of bacterial Dna replication
  • Figure 13.17a A summary of bacterial Dna replication (office one)
  • Figure 13.17b A summary of bacterial DNA replication (part two)
  • Effigy thirteen.17c A summary of bacterial DNA replication (office 3)
  • Figure 13.18 A current model of the DNA replication circuitous
  • Figure 13.19-1 Nucleotide excision repair of Dna damage (step 1)
  • Figure 13.xix-2 Nucleotide excision repair of Dna harm (step two)
  • Figure 13.19-three Nucleotide excision repair of DNA damage (step 3)
  • Figure 13.20 Telomeres
  • Figure 13.21 Exploring chromatin packing in a eukaryotic chromosome
  • Figure 13.21a Exploring chromatin packing in a eukaryotic chromosome (part 1)
  • Effigy 13.21aa Exploring chromatin packing in a eukaryotic chromosome (part 1a: Deoxyribonucleic acid strand, TEM)
  • Figure thirteen.21ab Exploring chromatin packing in a eukaryotic chromosome (part 1b: nucleosomes, TEM)
  • Effigy xiii.21b Exploring chromatin packing in a eukaryotic chromosome (part 2)
  • Figure thirteen.21ba Exploring chromatin packing in a eukaryotic chromosome (part 2a: 30-nm cobweb, TEM)
  • Figure 13.21bb Exploring chromatin packing in a eukaryotic chromosome (part 2b: looped domains, TEM)
  • Figure 13.21bc Exploring chromatin packing in a eukaryotic chromosome (part 2c: metaphase chromosome, TEM)
  • Figure 13.22 An overview of gene cloning and some uses of cloned genes
  • Figure thirteen.22a An overview of gene cloning and some uses of cloned genes (function ane: steps)
  • Figure 13.22b An overview of gene cloning and some uses of cloned genes (part ii: applications)
  • Figure 13.23-1 Using a restriction enzyme and DNA ligase to make recombinant DNA (step 1)
  • Figure thirteen.23-2 Using a restriction enzyme and Deoxyribonucleic acid ligase to brand recombinant DNA (stride 2)
  • Figure 13.23-3 Using a restriction enzyme and DNA ligase to make recombinant Deoxyribonucleic acid (footstep 3)
  • Effigy 13.24 Gel electrophoresis
  • Figure 13.24a Gel electrophoresis (part ane: fine art)
  • Figure 13.24b Gel electrophoresis (part ii: photo)
  • Figure 13.25 Inquiry method: the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
  • Figure 13.25a Research method: the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (part one)
  • Figure 13.25b-one Inquiry method: the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (part 2, pace 1)
  • Figure thirteen.25b-two Research method: the polymerase concatenation reaction (PCR) (part 2, step 2)
  • Figure 13.25b-3 Research method: the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (part ii, stride three)
  • Figure 13.25c Research method: the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (part 3)
  • Effigy xiii.26 Utilize of restriction enzymes and PCR in cistron cloning
  • Figure xiii.UN01 Skills practice: working with information in a table
  • Effigy 13.UN03 Summary of key concepts: double helix
  • Effigy 13.UN04 Summary of fundamental concepts: Deoxyribonucleic acid replication
  • Figure xiii.UN05 Summary of fundamental concepts: brake fragments
  • Effigy 13.UN06 Examination your understanding, question 11 (DNA replication complex)

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